Equisetum Sp.- Horsetail, Scouring rush

• Equisetaceae - Horsetail Family ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Equisetum arvense - common horsetail ^{[E-flora][TSFTK][PCBC]}
2. Equisetum hyemale - scouring-rush ^{[E-flora][TSFTK][PCBC]}
3. Equisetum fluviatile - swamp horsetail ^[E-flora]
4. Equisetum palustre - marsh horsetail ^[E-flora]
5. Equisetum pratense - meadow horsetail ^{[E-flora][PCBC]}
6. Equisetum telmateia - Giant Horsetail ^{[E-flora][TSFTK][PCBC]}
7. Equisetum variegatum - northern scouring-rush ^{[E-flora][TSFTK]}

Common Horsetail - Equisetum arvense

"Equisetum arvense is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 2. The seeds ripen in April.^[PFAF-2]
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil." ^[PFAF-2]

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora-2]

General: Perennial from a felty-hairy, tuber-bearing rhizome. Stems: 10-80 cm tall, 3-5 mm thick, with their central cavity less than 1/2 the stem diameter, regularly branched, the sheaths with 10-16 pointed teeth; branches in regular whorls, triangular in cross-section; the 1st internode of branches longer than the corresponding stem sheaths; fertile stems appearing in spring before sterile stems, about 10-15 cm tall, pale brown, unbranched, dying after the spores are shed, the sheaths 4-6, pale brown with 6-12 darker teeth.
Cones: 1-4 cm long, with solid centres, rounded on the tops. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}

Habitat / Range Wet to mesic sandy or disturbed sites, streambanks, open places and shady forests from the lowland and steppe to alpine zones; common throughout BC; circumpolar, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to SC, GA, AL, MS, TX, NM, AZ, CA and MX; Greenland, Eurasia, N. Africa, New Zealand. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
Open fields, arable land, waste places, hedgerows and roadsides[9], usually on moist soils[4]. Arctic and temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America and Asia.^[PFAF-2]

Ecological Indicator Information
A shade-tolerant/intolerant. submontane to subalpine. circumpolar horsetail (transcontinental in North America). Grows on nitrogen­medium soils within tundra, boreal, temperate,. and mesothermal climates. Common on water-receiving (floodplain. Seepage, springs and ephemeral streams) sites, frequently dominant in early-seral communities and forest openings. Characteristic of disturbed sites. ^{[E-flora-IPBC]}

Swamp Horsetail - Equisetum fluviatile

Synonyms

• Equisetum fluviatile var. limosum (L.) Gilbert
• Equisetum limosum L.^{[E-flora][PFAF]}
• E. heliocharis.^[PFAF-3]

"Equisetum fluviatile is a PERENNIAL growing to 1.2 m (4ft). It is hardy to zone (UK) 2. The seeds ripen from Jun to July.Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil and can grow in water." ^[PFAF-3]

General: Perennial from a smooth, shiny, often reddish rhizome. Stems: 30-150 cm tall, 2-10 mm thick, their central cavity more than 4/5 the stem diameter, simple or with a few whorled branches, the sheaths with 12-30 narrow, dark pointed teeth. Cones: 1-2 cm long, rounded on the top. Notes: A hybrid with E. arvense (E. x litorale Kuehl ex Rupr.) is frequent in places where both species occur. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Habitat / Range
Shallow water at lake margins, marshes, bogs and wet ditches in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; frequent throughout BC; circumpolar, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to VA, IN, IA, NE, WY, ID and OR; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Shallow water in lakes, ponds and ditches[17]. Arctic and temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America and Asia.^[PFAF-3]
Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Tall Scouring-rush - Equisetum hyemale

Equisetum hyemale is a PERENNIAL growing to 1 m (3ft 3in).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 5. The seeds ripen from Jul to August.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil.^[PFAF-7]

• SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC
  • Equisetum hyemale ssp. affine ^[E-flora-7]
• General: Perennial evergreen herbs from a thick, blackish rhizome. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}
• Stems: 30-120 cm tall, 4-6 mm thick, dark green, their cental cavity more than 2/3 the stem diameter, not branched, the sheaths with 14-50 teeth that fall off leaving only darker traces.^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}
• Cones: 8-15 mm long, the tip tapered to a black-tinged point. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}
• Habitat: Shady streambanks etc, to 500 metres[17]. ^[PFAF-7] Moist alluvial forests, riverbanks, roadsides, clearings and forest margins in the lowland, steppe and montane zones. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}
• Range: Temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America and Asia ^[PFAF-7] frequent throughout BC; N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to SC, GA, AL, MS, TX, NM, AZ, and CA.^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}
• Origin Status: Native ^{[IFBC-E-flora-7]}

Ecological Indicator
"A shade-tolerant/intolerant, submontane to montane, circumpolar horsetail (transcontinental in North America). Occurs on fresh to moist, calcium-rich and nitrogen-rich soils (Moder or Mull humus forms) within boreal, temperate, cool semiarid, mesothermal, and tropical climates; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation. Inhabits exposed mineral soil; scattered in broad-leaved forests on water-receiving (floodplain and stream­edge) sites, frequent in non-forested, early­seral communities. Characteristic of alluvial floodplain forests." ^{[IPBC-E-flora-7]}

Marsh Horsetail - Equisetum palustre

"Equisetum palustre is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 2. The seeds ripen from May to July.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil." ^[PFAF-4]

General: Perennial from a smooth rhizome.^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]} Stems: 10-60 cm tall, 1-3 mm thick, their central cavitiy less than 1/2 the stem diameter, unbranched or branched with irregular whorls; the sheaths with 5-10 dark teeth with whitish papery margins; branches (when present) in irregular whorls, with 4-6 blunt ridges, their first internodes shorter than the corresponding sheaths. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]} Cones: 1-3 cm long, rounded at the tip. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]} Notes: A hybrid with E. telmateia (E. x font-queri Rothm.) occurs rarely in BC (Cody & Britton 1989). ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}
Habitat / Range
Marshes, swamps, stream banks and wet forests from the lowland and steppe to montane zones; infrequent in BC; circumpolar, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to VT, CT, MI, IL, MN, ND, MT, ID and CA; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}
Bogs, fens, marshes and wet heaths, woods and meadows throughout Britain, ascending to 900 metres[257]. Temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America and Asia.^[PFAF-4]
Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora-4]

Meadow Horsetail - Equisetum pratense

Equisetum pratense is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft). It is hardy to zone (UK) 5. The seeds ripen in April.[PFAF]
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil.^[PFAF-6]

General: Perennial from a smooth, blackish rhizome. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-6]}
Stems: 10-60 cm tall, 1-2 mm thick, their central cavity 1/2 the stem diameter, regularly and abundantly branched, the sheaths with 10-20 narrow teeth, the teeth dark with white margins; branches in regular whorls, triangular in cross-section, the 1st internodes of each branch shorter than the corresponding sheaths. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-6]}
Cones: 1-4 cm long, rounded at the tip. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-6] [IFBC-E-flora]}
Habitat / Range
Mesic to wet forests, riverbanks, meadows, bog margins, from the montane to subalpine zones; frequent in BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains, infrequent in SC BC; N to AK, YT and NT, E to MI and S to NJ, MI, IA, SD, MT and WA; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-6]}
Grassy stream banks, up to 900 metres[17] Arctic and temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America, central and northern Asia.^[PFAF-6]
Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora-6]

Giant Horsetail - Equisetum telmateia

Equisetum telmateia is a PERENNIAL growing to 2 m (6ft 7in). It is hardy to zone (UK) 6. It is in flower in March, and the seeds ripen in April.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil.^[PFAF-1]

SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC
Equisetum telmateia ssp. braunii.^[E-flora-1]

Synonyms

• E. maximum. auct.^[PFAF-1]

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora-1]
General: Perennial from a felty-hairy, blackish, tuber-bearing rhizome. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
Stems: Sterile stems 15-150 cm tall, 5-20 mm thick, their central cavity more than 2/3 the stem diameter, regularly and abundantly branched, the sheaths with 15-30 teeth, the teeth with dark tips; branches in regular whorls; fertile stems appearing in spring before sterile stems, 10-40 cm tall, pale brown, unbranched, dying when the spores are shed, the sheaths 4-8, pale brown with 20-40 darker teeth. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
Cones: 4-8 cm long, hollow, rounded at the tip. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}

Habitat / Range
Moist to wet alluvial forests, loamy banks, cliffs, seepage areas, gullies, swamps, and roadsides, in the lowland and montane zones; frequent in coastal BC, rare east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; S to CA. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Damp shady banks etc, to 350 metres[17].Europe, including Britain, from Sweden south and east to N. Africa and W. Asia, N.W. N. America.^[PFAF-1]

Ecological Indicator Information
A shade-tolerant/intolerant, submontane to montane, European and Western North American horsetail (mainly in the Pacific region, less in the Cordilleran region, marginal in the Central region). Occurs in maritime to submaritime cool mesothermal climates on fresh to very moist, nitrogen-rich soils (Moder or Mull humus forms). Inhabits exposed mineral soil in broad-leaved stands on water-receiving (floodplain, seepage, and stream-edge) sites with fast-flowing groundwater near the ground surface. Its occurrence decreases with increasing latitude, elevation, and continentality. A nitrophytic species characteristic of alluvial floodplain forests. ^{[E-flora-IPBC-1]}

Northern Scouring-Rush - Equisetum variegatum

• Other Names: Variegated scouringrush ^[E-flora-5]

"Equisetum variegatum is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft) by 1 m (3ft 3in).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 2. The seeds ripen from Jul to August.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil.^{" [PFAF-5]}

SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC

• Equisetum variegatum ssp. alaskanum
• Equisetum variegatum ssp. variegatum ^[E-flora-5]

General: Perennial evergreen from a branched, shiny, blackish rhizome. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]} Stems: 10-50 cm tall, 1-3 mm thick, their central cavity 1/4 the stem diameter, unbranched, the sheaths with 3-14 teeth.^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]} Cones: 5-7 mm long, pointed at the tip.^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]}
Notes: A hybrid with E. hyemale (E. x trachyodon A. Braun) was collected on the Queen Charlotte Islands (Calder & Taylor 1968). A hybrid with E. laevigatum (E. x nelsonii [A. A. Eaton] Schaffn.) has not been reported from BC, but can be expected. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]}

Habitat / Range: Wet lake shores, streambanks, fens, meadows, clearings and roadsides from the lowland and steppe to subalpine and (rarely) alpine zones; frequent in coastal (ssp. alaskanum) and interior BC (ssp. variegatum); circumpolar, N to AK, E to NF and S to NH, CT, PA, MI, MN, WY, CO, UT, ID and OR; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]}
Dunes, river banks, wet ground on mountains etc, to 480 metres[17]. Arctic and temperate regions of Europe, including Britain, N. America, central and northern Asia.^[PFAF-5]

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora-5]

Species Mentioned; Common horsetail, field horsetail, running clubmoss, shenjincao (E. arvense); rough horsetail, common scouring rush, and muzei (E. hymale)^{[Leung ECNI]} Horsetail - Equisetum Sp. ^[Nyerges]

Hazards

• Thiaminase: "Horsetails ...contain thiaminase, an enzyme that destroys thiamine and hence can cause thiamine deficiency. They also contain silicates, especially in the cells of mature plants, making them "scratchy" to the touch, and too tough to eat except in their young stage. However, there is no evidence that giant horsetail caused any problems for Indigenous People in the quantities used and at its young growth stage when normally eaten." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Equisetum Sp.; "While alkaloids, including nicotine are present in horsetails, their toxicity, like that of bracken, is due to the enzyme thiaminase breaking down the vitamin thiamine in the browsing animal and leading to a vitamin B1 deficiency in horses." ^{[Wickens, EB]} do not confuse medicinal horsetail with other Equisetum spp. keep horsetail away from children. The active chemicals in this herb are absorbed through the skin and can cause death. ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
  • E. arvense & E. hymale; An antithiamine action has been recognized in Equisetum ingestion in horses, destroying thiamine (vitamin B1) in the stomach of monogastric animals, including humans.7,17 ^{[Leung ENCI]}
  • E. arvense; The plant contains equisetic acid, which is thought to be identical to aconitic acid. This substance is a potent heart and nerve sedative that is a dangerous poison when taken in high doses[213]. This plant contains irritant substances and should only be used for short periods of time[238]. It is also best only used under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. ^[PFAF] Do not eat large quantities of horsetail and avoid the species of horsetail not normally used medicinally. Horsetails do contain alkaloids, including palustrine, but there don’t seem to be any records of toxicity in humans.^[BackMed]
  • E. arvense; Horsetail is stated to be contraindicated in patients who have edema due to impaired heart and kidney function.^{[Capasso PQR][Leung ENCI]}
  • A. arvense; Though there are no reports of poisoning from eating the raw, white inner core of the tan reproductive shoots, the green horsetail stalks have caused difficulty. The enzyme thiaminase, which destroys thiamine (vitamin B1 ) stored in the body, is believed responsible for the poisonings. Cooking destroys this enzyme and renders the plants safe for consumption. ^[Schofield]
• Livestock Poisonings: A. arvense; Raw horsetail, though unappetizing to humans, is fondly relished by many horses. Overgrazing the plants (as pasture or hay) can result in loss of muscle control, convulsions, coma, and death. Dianne Davis, in June 1982 Alaska magazine, stated that "horses that eat hay that is one-fifth Equisetum arvense over a period of two to five weeks, show signs of poisoning." Massive doses of vitamin B1 have managed to save some horses poisoned by horsetail. ^[Schofield] Acontic acid in plant is poisonous to horses but not to cows or goats. ^[CEUPW] Horsetail causes mild poisoning if grazed in large quantities by horses, cattle, and sheep, although it doesn't kill. Symptoms include weakness, nervousness, staggering, and unsteady gait. ^[Nyerges]
  
  • E. palustre L., which contains the alkaloid palustrine, is also toxic to livestock. ^{[Leung ENCI]}
• E. variegatum, E. telmateia, E. pretense, E. palustre; E. hyemale, E. fluviatile, E. arvense; Large quantities of the plant can be toxic. This is because it contains the enzyme thiaminase[172], a substance that can rob the body of the vitamin B complex[65]. In small quantities this enzyme will do no harm to people eating an adequate diet that is rich in vitamin B, though large quantities can cause severe health problems. The enzyme is destroyed by heat or thorough drying, so cooking the plant will remove the thiaminase[172]. The plant also contains equisetic acid - see the notes on medicinal uses for more information[213].^[PFAF]
• Possible Interactions;
  • Equisetum arvense;
    • "Contraindicated in cardiopathy or nephrosis. Powdered herb not recommended for children or long-term use. Toxicity is reportedly similar to nicotine poisoning in children who have chewed the stem (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Despite reported benefits of silicon, it seems prudent that infants, young children, and pregnant women not ingest horsetail for extended periods, unless its thiaminase enzyme has been deactivated (Reichert, 1994). Not for use during pregnancy, or with kidney or heart disease (WAM). Raw use depletes thiamine (vitamin B1). Should not be used more than 7 days (WAM). Said to induce seborrheic dermatosis (Reichert, 1994). There’s an inconsistency in an AHP quote, “daily use of the herb should not exceed 2.0 grams ... doses in excess of 5.0 grams of the herb powder should be taken during meals.” " ^[PDR]
    • Cardiac glycosides (digoxin): Horsetail may increase the toxicity of cardiac glycosides and increase hypokalemia.^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
    • Diuretics: Horsetail may increase the effect of diuretics; avoid concurrent use (theoretical).^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
    • Lithium: Horsetail taken with lithium may cause dehydration and lithium toxicity.^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
    • Herb
      • Adonis, lily of the valley, squill: Horsetail increases the action of Adonis vernalis, convalleria majalis, Scillae bulbs when taken concurrently.^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
      • Tobacco: Horsetail may cause increased CNS stimulation when used with tobacco; avoid concurrent use.^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
    • Food
      • Thiamine: Horsetail may interfere with the absorption of thiamine. ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}

Edible Uses

• Plant:
  • E.arvense; A further report says that the peeled stems, base of the plant, root and tubers were eaten raw by the N. American Indians, the report went on to say that this may be inadvisable[85].^[PFAF-2] "The related species Equisetum hyemale L. has also been used, but note that standardised pharmacopoeial preparations of horsetail should contain no more than 5% of other Equisetum species." ^{[HMI Stockey]} tubers and spring shoots were once used as a famine food in Estonia. ^{[Tardio MWEP]}
  • E. hyemale; A further report says that the peeled stems, base of the plant, root and tubers were eaten raw by the N. American Indians, the report went on to say that this may be inadvisable[85]. ^[PFAF-7]
• Shoots: Although horsetails are not an important food source, the very young, newly emerging shoots (about one inch tall) can, if as large as your little finger, be eaten if first carefully peeled of their thin outer layer of gritty skin. ^[Nyerges]
  • E.arvense; Spore-bearing and sterile shoots of E. arvense eaten. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} Eaten by Romans in 17th century, the young heads were boiled like asparagus, or mixed with flour and fried. ^[CEUPW] The young green stalks that appear later have also been steamed as a vegetable. Spring. Horsetail greens are high in calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; their texture, however, makes me prefer them as a medicinal, mineral tea rather than vegetable. (See Caution, following.) ^[Schofield] Green Vegetative Stems should be gathered while branches point upward. ^[Schofield] Some native tribes liked to eat the young vegetative shoots, picked before they had branched out, and would often collect them in great quantity then hold a feast to eat them[257]. The leaf sheaths were peeled off and the stems eaten raw - they were said to be 'nothing but juice'[257].^[PFAF-2] Strobil (the fertile shoots in spring) - cooked and used as an asparagus substitute[7, 46, 61, 94]. They should be used when young[116] but even so it is probably best to change the water, perhaps 3 - 4 times[85, 102]. One report says that they can be eaten raw[172], they are peeled and the shoot tip is discarded[213]. It is said to be a very tedious operation and they should not be eaten raw in any quantity, see the notes above on toxicity[K]. ^[PFAF-2] The fertile conelike stems are eaten by various peoples as a delicacy. Early Spring. The swollen spore-producing tip and the outer coating of the tan stem are discarded. The white inner core is nibbled raw, or added to food dishes. (Personally, I find the process a bit tedious and the product far from gourmet.) ^[Schofield]
  • E. hyemale; Strobili of E. hyemale eaten with salmon eggs. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} Strobil (the fertile shoots in spring) - cooked[177]. An asparagus substitute. Caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity.^[PFAF-7]
    • Thickening/Tea: E. hyemale; Some of the horsetails were utilized by drying the green stems, grinding them to a powder and using the product as mush or thickening. This powder has also been used to make a tea, and we have seen it for sale in local grocery stores. ^[Harrington]
  • E. fluviatile; Strobil (the fertile shoots in spring) - cooked[2, 4, 85]. Used as an asparagus substitute, though it is neither palatable nor nutritious[4]. Caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity. ^[PFAF-3]
  • E. telmateia Young shoots of E. telmatiea eaten in spring. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} The succulent shoots—both spore-bearing and vegetative— were eaten raw or boiled. Some groups ate only the vegetative shoots, others only the fertile shoots. To eat the shoots, the papery sheathing leaves and, on the vegetative shoots, the young branches, were peeled off, and the stem portion,especially the tender inside part on the lower part of the stalk, was eaten, usually with a dressing of seal oil or some other type of oil. Tough, fibrous portions were chewed and discarded. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} Strobil (the fertile shoots in spring) - raw or cooked[256]. The tough outer fibres are peeled off, or can be chewed and then discarded[256]. The vegetative shoots, produced from late spring onwards, were occasionally cleaned of their leaves, sheathing and branches and then eaten by native North American Indians, but only when very young and tightly compacted[256].^[PFAF-1] "Barnett (1955) suggests that the pollen "cones" of E. telmateia were eaten in addition to the shoots. These were apparently juicy and sweet-tasting." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• Tuberous growths & Root
  • E. arvense; "The small black nodules that grow on the roots of horsetail, as well as the roots themselves, are ground up while green and mixed into agutuk. They may also be mixed with fish eggs and made into a soup. There is no sex distinction recognized." [Oswalt Eskimo] Roots - raw[61]. The tuberous growths on the rhizomes are used in the spring[172]. The black nodules attached to the roots are edible[257]. It takes considerable effort to collect these nodules so it is normally only done in times of desperation. However, native peoples would sometimes raid the underground caches of roots collected by lemmings and other rodents in order to obtain these nodules[257].^[PFAF-2] Roots and nodules of E. arvense ground and eaten with animal fat and berries or cooked in soups. The young tubers eaten raw, plain or with grease in spring. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} Tuberous growths on roots of E. arvense are dug as the ground begins to thaw in early spring. Relished. ^[Schofield] little tubers eaten throughout northern hemisphere, particularly in Russia.^[ETWP] The small black nodules that grow on the roots of horsetail, as well as the roots themselves, are ground up while green and mixed into agu'tuk. They may also be mixed with fish eggs and made into a soup. There is no sex distinction recognized.^{[Oswalt Eskimo]} "The roots of some horsetail species (e.g. E. arvense) produce roundish black nodules about the size of blackberries (Empetrum nigrum)....These nodulestaste sweet and are edible for people." [Jernigan EYK]
  • E. hyemale; Roots - dried and then cooked[257]. A source of starch[177]. Caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity. ^[PFAF-7]
  • E. fluviatile; Roots - cooked[4, 85, 105]. The roots contain a nutritious starch[2]. Caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity. ^[PFAF-3]
  • E. pratense; "Roots - raw or cooked[46, 61, 85, 161, 257]. Caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity. A further report says that the peeled stems, base of the plant, root and tubers were eaten raw by the N. American Indians, the report went on to say that this may be inadvisable[85]." ^[PFAF-6]
    
  • E. telmateia: Root - cooked[257]. ^[PFAF-1] Small "bulbs" attached to the root-stock were eaten cooked, or occasionally raw, by some groups. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
• Water:
  • E. hyemale; Water sucked from hollow stems. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • E. telmateia: The hollow stems of this species and others frequently contain water, and this was believed to be safe for drinking even when nearby water was contaminated. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}

Other Uses

• Abrasive: The dried or fresh shoots can also be used for cleaning pots and pans due to their gritty silica coverings. The same quality makes the plant ideal for use as a fingernail file, for polishing hardwood, ivory or brass (to which it imp arts a natural sheen), and even (in emergencies) chewed as a dentifrice (although this can be abrasive to the teeth). ^[Nyerges]
  • Equisetum Sp.; Horsetail stems were also formerly used by watch-makers and brass-workers as an abrasive for giving an extra finish after filing. Used by cabinetmakers, including the Dutch-born British sculptor Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), for polishing wood-carvings. ^{[Wickens, EB]} The rough leaves and stems made E. arvense and E. telmateia very useful for polishing canoes and other wooden articles. ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
  • E. variegatum, E. telmateia, E. palustre; E. hyemale, E. arvense; The stems contain 10% silica and are used for scouring metal[4, 7, 20, 94, 102] and as a fine sandpaper[7, 54, 99, 257]. They can also be used as a polish for brass, hardwood etc[94].^[PFAF]
  • E.arvense & E. telmateia; "The rough silicon-impregnated stems of both species were used as sandpaper to polish canoes, feast dishes, and recently, knitting needles (Barnett, 1955; Lane, 1951)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
  • E.arvense; When camping, try using a bundle of green horsetail stems (the older the better) as a scrubber for cleaning, shining, and disinfecting pots and pans. For extra cleaning power, add a handful of soapberries or cranberries. Wet horsetails are popular with rural gardeners for cleaning dirty hands, as well as for scrubbing fresh-pulled root vegetables. ^[Schofield] The outer layer of the stems contains a quantity of silica useful in polishing hardwood, ivory and brass; also used by mexicans and indians for scouring pots. ^[CEUPW] It is said that powdered horsetail ash mixed with water is still the best silver cleaner.^[BackMed] "Mature horsetails have a large amount of silica in them, and that makes them extremely hard when dried (Forsyth). That is why the stems were used by cabinetmakers as a fine grade “sandpaper” (Salisbury. 1964), and they served as pot-scourers, too (North). They were “…employ’d by artificers for polishing of vessels, handles of tools, and other utensils: it is so hard that it will touch iron itself ” (Camden)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • E. telmateia: The stems are very rich in silica[4]. They are used for scouring and polishing metal[1, 4, 46, 61, 99, 257] and as a fine sandpaper[54, 99, 257]. The stems are first bleached by repeated wetting and drying in the sun[74]. They can also be used as a polish for wooden floors and furniture[46, 178].^[PFAF-1]
• Infused Stem: E. variegatum, E. telmateia, E. palustre; E. hyemale, E. arvense; The infused stem is an effective fungicide against mildew, mint rust and blackspot on roses[14, 18, 20, 54]. It also makes a good liquid feed[54]. ^[PFAF]
  • E. telmateia:The infused stem is an effective fungicide against mildew, mint rust and blackspot on roses[14]. It also makes a good liquid feed[54]. Used as a hair rinse it can eliminate fleas, lice and mites[213]. ^[PFAF-1]
• Basketry:
  • E. telmateia:The black roots have been used for imbrication on coiled baskets[257]. ^{[PFAF-1][Turner&Bell1]}
• Dye:
  • E.arvense; Horsetail's vegetative stems can be used as a source of yellow-to-green dyes; color varies with mordant used. Plant Lore of an Alaskan Island suggests using at least 2 gallons horsetail greens to each pound wool yarn and simmering for 30 minutes. ^[Schofield] A light pink dye is obtained from the stem[99, 257]. It is yellow-gray according to another report[102].^[PFAF-2] "The plant yields a red dye which is used for polishing wooden articles. It yields a number of coloring principles like kaempferol, equisetrin, and apigenin."^{[Singh HNDP]}
  • E. hyemale; A light pink dye is obtained from the stem[99]. ^[PFAF-7]
• Whistle:
  • E. hyemale; The hollow stems have been used as whistles[257]. Another report says that the stem joints are pulled apart and used by children to produce a whistling sound[257]. ^[PFAF-7] Kwakiutl children used the hollow segments of E. hyemale for making whistles (King, 1972). ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
• Hair Wash: A decoction of horsetail (boil 1 heaping tablespoon herb in 1 cup water) is said to stimulate hair growth and eliminate dandruff and head lice. This can also be used to rid pets of fleas. ^[Schofield]
  • E. arvense & E. hymale; Horsetail extract is used as a biological additive in shampoos, skin care products, and so on.^{[Leung ENCI]}
  • E. hyemale; Stems used as a hair rinse it can eliminate fleas, lice and mites[213, 257]. ^[PFAF-7]

Medicinal Uses

• Plant:
  • Parts Used:
    • E. hyemale; The barren stems are used, they are most active when fresh but can also be dried and sometimes the ashes of the pant are used[4]. ^[PFAF-7]
      
  • Harvesting: Best gathered in spring, horsetail is highly regarded by herbalists for its medicinal value. ^[Nyerges]
  • Dosages:
    • E. arvense; HERB. Standard Infusion, 2-4 ounces, topically as hair rinse. Use only herbs gathered upstream...inorganic fertilizer runoff alters the chemistry. ^{[Moore (1995)]}
    • E. hyemale; HERB. Standard Infusion for external use.^{[Moore (1995)]}
  • Homeopathic:
    • E. arvense; A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh plant[7]. It is used in the treatment of cystitis and other complaints of the urinary system[7].^[PFAF-2]
  • Bronchitis/TB:
    • E. arvense; Fresh spring horsetail can be tinctured in brandy. "Horsetail tincture is a traditional remedy for bronchitis and tuberculosis of the lungs.... late summer horsetail can cause kidney irritation." "For lung disorders, horsetail is frequently combined with coltsfoot, plantain, and nettle." ^[Schofield]
  • External Use:
    • Wounds:
      • E. arvense; A decoction applied externally will stop the bleeding of wounds and promote healing[4]. It is especially effective on nose bleeds[7]. A decoction of the herb added to a bath benefits slow-healing sprains and fractures, as well as certain irritable skin conditions such as eczema[254]. ^[PFAF-2] leaves and stems of E. arvense and E. telmateia were also used to make a poultice for cuts and sores. ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
      • E. hyemale; A decoction applied externally will stop the bleeding of wounds and promote healing[4]. ^[PFAF-7]
      • E. palustre, E. variegatum; Horsetail is very astringent and makes an excellent clotting agent, staunching wounds, stopping nosebleeds and reducing the coughing up of blood[254]. It helps speed the repair of damaged connective tissue, improving its strength and elasticity[254]. ^[PFAF-4,5]
      • E. telmateia:A poultice of the rough leaves and stems is applied to cuts and sores[257]. ^[PFAF-1]
    • Styptic:
      • E. arvense; In ancient times, horsetail was a favored herb for stanching battle wounds. Today, it is still recommended as a poultice for hemorrhages, cancer-like growths, and ulcerous wounds.^[Schofield]
      • E. fluviatile; The plant is styptic[61]. The barren stems are used, they are most active when fresh but can also be dried and sometimes the ashes of the plant are used[4]. A decoction applied externally will stop the bleeding of wounds and promote healing[4]. ^[PFAF-3]
        
    • Wash:
      • E. arvense; "...horsetail sitz baths and washings for disc lesions and serious kidney disorders, as well as ". . . inflammation of the nailbed, cracked feet, caries, old festering wounds, cancerlike growths, bony projections on the heel, fistulas, barber's itch and other herpes."" ^[Schofield]
    • Cyst
      • E. arvense; Horsetail poultices are an herbal treatment for hemorrhoids and tumors. When troubled by a painful cyst, I began applying hot packs of boiled horsetail morning and night. Within forty-eight hours, the cyst was totally drained. ^[Schofield]
    • Antiseptic/disinfectant: E. arvense; As an external wash, it's said to be antiseptic and disinfectant and ideal for insect bites and skin eruptions. ^[Schofield]
    • Bath Herb: E arvense: "Horsetail is a mineral-rich bath herb that's reported to increase circulation. Besides being refreshing to tired bodies, it's well suited to those with varicose veins and skin problems. I like adding horsetail to footbaths for sweaty or sore feet and to facial steams for troubled skin. For washing my hair, I favor the herbal blend in Horsetail-Nettle Shampoo and Conditioner." ^[Schofield]
  • Internal Use
    • E. palustre; An infusion or decoction of the plants has been used in the treatment of constipation, stomach and bowel complaints[257].^[PFAF-4]
    • E. telmateia:The plant is astringent and diuretic[257]. A decoction has been used to treat 'stoppage of urine'[257].^[PFAF-1]
      
• Shoots:
  • E. Hyemale; Internally, used for.--Dropsy, suppression of the urine, blood in the urine, gravel, gonorrhea and gleet.^{[Ritter MRTTOS]}
    • Prepared E. Hyemale; Infusion, one ounce to the pint of water.^{[Ritter MRTTOS]}
    • Dose E. Hyemale; For above diseases drink in half ounce doses every two hours. ^{[Ritter MRTTOS]}
  • Tea: The shoots, used fresh or dried, are ground and cooked in water to make a tea. This tea is then used for cases of nervous breakdown, for insomnia, or for purifying the blood. To treat any wounds, cuts, sores, swelling, or rashes, one is told to wash the area with horsetail tea and then apply compresses. The tea is also useful for bad breath, stuffed-up nasal passages, and cases of extreme tension. ^[Nyerges]
    • E. arvense; As a tea for internal bleeding, kidney stones, rheumatism, bladder and urinary tract diseases, and stomach ulcers. ^[Schofield]
  • Urinary Problems: E. arvense; Horsetail tea is rich in silicic acid, and is diuretic, so it can be used for urinary problems, including bedwetting, cystitis, or anuresis (M Evans; Schauenberg & Paris). ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Menstrual Disorders: E. arvense; The tea was used in Russia for all menstrual disorders (Kourennoff), and this same tea can be taken for oedema (Flück).^{[DPL Watts]}
• Root:
  • E. arvense & E. hymale; root used as an analgesic for teething babies. ^{[Leung ENCI]}
• Misc:
  • E. arvense: Properly picked horsetail, however, is used by many herbalists in teas and tinctures for kidney problems; for bleeding kidneys, horsetail is often blended with shepherd's purse. ^[Schofield]
    
  • E. arvense; The dried plant used in Hamalayan regions for dropsy, navel and kidney infections. Decoction used in nasal polypus and breast cancers. Ashes are useful in acidity of stomach and dyspepsia. Also used for washing tumors and cacerous lesions of bones. Stems used for treatment of bone fracture. ^{[MPUC Trivedi]}
  • Eyes
    • E. variegatum; The plant has been used in the treatment of sore eyes[257].[PFAF-5]

Phytochemicals

E. variegatum, E. telmateia, E. pratense, E. palustre; E. hyemale, E. fluviatile, E. arvense; "Horsetails have an unusual chemistry compared to most other plants[238]. They are rich in silica, contain several alkaloids (including nicotine) and various minerals[238]." ^[PFAF]

• E. arvense; "Horsetail is very astringent and makes an excellent clotting agent, staunching wounds, stopping nosebleeds and reducing the coughing up of blood[254]. It helps speed the repair of damaged connective tissue, improving its strength and elasticity[254]. The plant is anodyne, antihaemorrhagic, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, galactogogue, haemostatic and vulnerary[4, 7, 9, 20, 21, 46, 61, 165, 172, 218, 240]." ^[PFAF]
• E. arvense corrects and mantains the organic calcium equilibrium. This abilty rests especially upon the transmutation of silicon into calcium. ^{[Junius PHPA]}
• E. arvense; Vasorelaxant [233]; highly recommended as hemostatic [220]. Documented Inhibitory activity on platelet aggregation [220]; IC50 ~ 6 mg/mL. ^{[Kuete MPRA]}
• "Equisetum arvense L. (Eq.arv), ... possesses high anti-oxidant activity in-vitro and in-vivo (Myagmar and Aniya, 2000)." ^{[UNIDO Asia]}

Horsetail is used internally to increase the strength of bones, teeth, nails, and hair. It has also been used internally as an antiinfective, diuretic, and anticancer treatment, as well as to decrease gout, prevent urinary stones, treat menorrhagia, and increase strength. It is used externally to promote wound healing. ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}

This herb exerts mild diuretic activity but is not recommended to treat any condition. Horsetail may increase sodium and water excretion. Anecdotal reports characterize it as an astringent used to stop bleeding, decrease infl ammation, and promote wound healing. However, no evidence supports any of these claims. One study (Radulovic et al, 2006) identified antimicrobial actions against a panel of microorganisms. Another study (Dos Santos et al, 2005) found that horsetail possesses sedative and anticonvulsant effects when studied in the laboratory. ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}

"Calcium-containing herbs, such as comfrey, horsetail (Equisetum arvense), kelp (Fucus vesiculosus), marshmallow (Althea off.), meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), nettles and skullcap (Scutellarria laterifolia), used regularly in teas or tinctures are also good for nursing mothers." ^{[McIntyre AHTC]}

• Equisetum arvense L.; E. hymale - Equisetum hybrids are extremely variable in morphological features. It has been suggested that hybrid parent species can be verified with analysis of flavonoid patterns.5 ^{[Leung ENCI]}
  • Silica, necessary for the formation of articular cartilage and connective tissue, is taken up by the plant in the form of a bioavailable monosilicic acid,7 perhaps accounting for traditional uses of the plant.^{[Leung ENCI]}
  • Silicic acid and silicates (5–8%) water soluble up to 80%. ^{[Leung ENCI]}

E. arvense;
Flavonoids: (0.6 to 0-9%): apigenin-5-0-glucoside, genkwanin-5-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3,7-di-0-glucoside, kaempferol-3-0-(6'-0-malonyl-glucoside)-7-0-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside, luteolin-5-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside
Caffeic acid ester (up to 1%): including chlorogenic acid, dicoffeoyl-meso-tartaric acid
Silicic acid (5 to 7.7%): to some extent water-soluble
Pyridine alkaloids: nicotine (traces), palustrine (in the gamatophytes and in the rhizome styrolpyrone glucosides, including equisetumpyrone) ^[PDR] Trace amounts of nicotine have been found in E. arvense. ^{[Leung ENCI]}

• The stems of E. arvense contain volatile oil with 25 identified compounds. The major constituents include hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, geranyl acetone, thymol, and transphytol.10 ^{[Leung ENCI]}
• Oh et al. reported that among various flavonoids, that is, apigenin, luteolin, kaempherol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin 3-O-glucoside isolated from Equisetum arvense, onitin and luteolin exhibited hepatoprotective activity against tacrine-induced cytotoxicity in human liver-derived Hep G2 cells [142]. ^{[Ramawat NP]}

E. palustre;"[The alkaloid] Palustrine (19), from Equisetum palustre (Equisetaceae), also was reported quite early (Badwani et al., 1973)." ^{[Seiger PSM]}

Nutritional

E.arvense & E. telmateia; "The tender young shoots of both these species were eaten raw or boiled by the Saanich (Paul, 1968) and undoubtedly by the other groups too. They were thought to be "good for the blood" as well as nourishing (Harry, 1969)..." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}

Pharmacology

• Horsetail is considered mildly diuretic hemostyptic (astringent), and vulnerary.^{[Leung ENCI]}
• Essential Oil: The essential oil is strongly antimicrobial against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and fungi.10 ^{[Leung ENCI]}
• (Equisetum telmateia) "...has a long history of medicinal uses. This plant is rich in healing silica and is commonly used for its antipyretic effects. It also has anti-inflammatory properties. It is used as a mouthwash to relieve mouth and gum infections." ^{[Rastogi EBP]}
• E. hyemale; "The plant is anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, haemostatic, hypotensive and styptic[147, 176. 218, 279]. It also has an appetite-stimulating effect[279]." ^[PFAF-7]
• Bactericidal: E. hyemale; The plant contains polyphenolic flavonoids with bactericidal activity[218].^[PFAF-7]
• Diuretic:
  • E. arvense; Indians and early settlers used the stems as a stimulating diuretic in kidney and dropsical disorders. ^[CEUPW] E. arvense; leaves are anticonvulsant and diuretic. ^{[Rai MPBD]}
  • E. hyemale; the diuretic action is very feeble. ^{[Remington USD20]} The plant is a useful diuretic when taken internally and is used in the treatment of kidney and bladder problems[4]. ^[PFAF-7]

Cultivation

Horsetails are perennials, and although they can be gathered year-round for their practical uses, they are best gathered in the spring for their medicinal uses. ^[Nyerges]

• E. variegatum, E. telmateia, E. pratense, E. palustre; E. hyemale, E. fluviatile, E. arvense; "Prefers a moist but well-drained fertile soil with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5[200, 238]. A very cold-hardy species tolerating temperatures down to about -30⁰c[200]. Plants have a deep and penetrating root system and can be invasive. If grown in the garden they are best kept in bounds by planting them in a large container which can be sunk into the ground[200]." ^[PFAF]
• E. arvense:
  • Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) is an indicator of damp soil because this is the only condition it enjoys. Beware of horsetail—its roots can reach a depth of 6ft (2m)."^{[Mcvicar GH]}
  • Biodynamic: "Historically, the anthroposophic movement of the Austrian thinker Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s in central Europe, and its associated biodynamic agriculture movement was the first self-claimed alternative to the industrialization of agriculture (Steiner 1924). ... some specific “preparations” or recipes were proposed to combat crop diseases such as boiled horsetail plant (Equisetum arvense) to prevent fungal diseases...." ^{[Lichtfouse SAR 14]}
  • Silicon is beneficial to many grasses and essential for Equisetum arvense. ^{[Gregory PR]}
  • Companion: Companion Plants and How to Use Them recommends spraying plants with a horsetail decoction (boil 1 1 /2 ounces herb in I gallon water for 20 minutes) to protect them from fungus diseases. It's said to have a ". . . gentle and swift action which does not disturb soil life." ^[Schofield]
  • Wildlife: Bears and muskrats eat it and rootstalks eaten by geese. ^[CEUPW]
• Equisetum Sp.; Accumulates Si, Mg, Ca, Fe, Co. ^{[Dynamic Accumulators]}

Element Accumulating Plant

The Sphenophyta, syn. Equisetophyta, is represented by the monotypic genus Equisetum (horsetails), consisting of 15 species which, apart from Australia, have an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Its members have a great affinity for accumulating and concentrating gold in solution, albeit only 0.25 g gold kg-! stems and rhizomes. Although the commercial extraction of the gold is not economically viable, the presence of horsetails is seen by prospectors as an indicator plant for gold ore. ^{[Wickens, EB]}

E. arvense; The plant also contains more than 10% inorganic constituents of which two thirds are silicates (which can constitute as much as 15% (17)) and potassium salts (5). Small amounts of gold (0.03–0.075 ppm) and silver (0.23 ppm) and lanthanides have been reported (38) traces of alkaloids, including nicotine and spermidine-type bases, and palustrine. The sterols B-sitosterol, campesterol, isofucosterol and cholesterol are present (37). ^{[WHO NIS]}

"The intentional burning of plant biomass to both produce energy and release metals for recovery will require demonstration that the pollution control equipment is highly effective in recovering the metals. In this regard, plant species which accumulate Si, such as rice (Oryza sativa), horsetail (Equisetum arvense), and many other species, would cause significant problems in element recovery from the plant ash. Not only may the Si dilute the metals in the ash substantially, the presence of high Si levels may cause formation of a glass or slag from which recovery of metals may be very difficult." ^[PCSW]

Use of Other Related Species

From a field study with 12 emergent-rooted wetland plant species including different populations of...Juncus effusus and Equisetum ramosisti, Deng et al. (2004) proposed that these plants can be used in constructed wetlands for effective removal of toxic metals like Pb, Zn, Cu, and Cd. ^{[Hasegawa ERTMCS]}

• Hazards:
  • Poisoning by Equisetum spp. was reported.... Plant ingestion occurs during the dry season when the plants are still green or when fed with contaminated hay. Clinical signs characterized by weight loss, lethargy, staggers, unsteady gait, and ataxia are observed 3-6 weeks after the start of ingestion. ...(Alvim 1948)." ^{[Riet-Correa PPMRT]}
• Equisetum Spp.; Upper stem, plant; Infusion/decoction, poultice - Internal bleeding, hemorrhages, pimples. ^{[Helaine_Selin][AJA 7.2]}
  • Interestingly, endotrophic symbiosis in Equisetum is rare and when present atypical, though it was well represented in the plants carboniferous arborescent progenitors. ^{[Mukerji MB]}
• E. diffusum; Whole plants are useful in acidity and dropsy. ^{[MPUC Trevedi]}
• E. ramossissimum Desf. Sub sp. debile (Roxb ex Vauch) Hauke; The plant is useful in cure of gonorrhoea and treatment of fracture. ^{[MPUC Trevedi]} Anh-Bui et al. (2011) reported... Cynodon dactylon L., ... and Equisetum ramosissimum as hyperaccumulators of heavy metals. ... and Equisetum ramosissimum accumulate very high Pb (0.15–0.65 %) and Zn (0.22–1.56 %). ^[Phytorem2]
• In traditional Chinese medicine, E. hymale and E. debile Roxb. (substitute in Yunnan), have been used to treat bloody stools, dysentery with blood, anal prolapse, malaria, sore throat. ^{[Leung ENCI]}

"Loffler et a1. (1989) purified the PC synthase (-y-GluCys dipeptidyl transpeptidase) to homogeneity in cell cultures of ...Eschscholtzia californica (Papaveraceae)... and Equisetum giganteum (Pteridophyte, Equisetaceae). This enzyme catalyzes the formation ofmetal chelating peptides (PCs) from glutathione in the presence ofHM ions. Incubation of PC synthase under standard conditions in the absence of HM ions does not lead to the formation ofPCs (LOffler et a1. 1989), However, addition of Cd to the incubation mixture instantaneously reactivated the enzymes (Kneer and Zenk 1992)." ^{[Prasad MHSP]}

References

• [DukePhyt] Unless otherwise noted all references are to Duke, James A. 1992. Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.
  • [1] Equisetum arvense, Accessed Oct 2, 2016
  • [2]Equisetum hyemale, Accessed Oct 2, 2016
• [E-flora]
  • [1] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20telmateia&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [2]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20arvense&redblue=Both&lifeform=5, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [3]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20fluviatile&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 [Accessed: 3/15/2015]
  • [4]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20palustre&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 [Accessed: 3/15/2015]
  • [5]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20variegatum&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 [Accessed: 3/15/2015]
  • [6]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20pratense&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 [Accessed: 3/15/2015]
  • [7]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Equisetum%20hyemale&redblue=Both&lifeform=5 [Accessed: October 18, 2014, 2014]
• [Jepson]2013. Equisetum, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=9816, accessed on Jan 25 2015
• [PFAF] Plants for a future
  • [1]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+telmateia, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [2]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+arvense Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [3]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+fluviatile, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [4]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+palustre, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [5]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+variegatum, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [6]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+pratense, Accessed March 15, 2015
  • [7]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Equisetum+hyemale, Accessed October 17, 2014